Definition

The use of pathos is called a "pathetic appeal." Note that this is different than some of the common definitions of the word "pathetic."

"Pathos" is used to describe the rhetor's attempt to appeal to (in the words of the course packet) "an audience's sense of identity, their self-interest, and their emotions." If the rhetor can create a common sense of identity with their audience, then the rhetor is using a pathetic appeal. So if that college English professor above mentions having played basketball in high school and convinces the audience that she or he was pretty good, then not only does that fact strengthen the rhetor's ethos, it also makes a pathetic appeal. (This is also why so many politicans will open their speeches with "My fellow Americans..." This is why during his 2008 campaign for president, Senator John McCain used the phrase "My friends..." so much when speaking to audiences.)

"Pathos" most often refers to an attempt to engage an audience's emotions. Think about the different emotions people are capable of feeling: they include love, pity, sorrow, affection, anger, fear, greed, lust, and hatred. If a rhetor tries to make an audience feel emotions in response to what is being said or written, then they are using pathos.

Examples

Let's say a rhetor is trying to convince an audience of middle-class Americans to donate money to a hurricane relief fund. The rhetor can make pathetic appeals to an audience's feelings of love, pity, fear, and perhaps anger. (The extent to which any of these emotions will be successfully engaged will vary from audience to audience.)

• "Love" will be felt if the audience can be made to believe in their fundamental connections to other human beings.
• "Pity" will be felt if the plight of the homeless hurricane victim can be made very vivid to the audience.
• "Fear" will be felt if the audience can be made to imagine what they would feel like in that homeless victim's place.
• "Anger" will be felt if the audience realizes how little has been done by those who are responsible for helping.

If the rhetor works all of these things together properly (and also doesn't screw up ethos and logos), then the audience is more likely to be persuaded.

Definition

The use of logos is called a "logical appeal."

A statement does not have to be considered logical to be a logical appeal. We use the term logos to describe what kind of rhetorical appeal is being made, not to evaluate whether or not an appeal makes sense. "Logos" is the use of the strategies of logic to persuade your audience. If an statement attempts to persuade the audience by making a reasonable claim and offering proof in support of that claim (rather than by trying to make them feel certain emotions, or by making them perceive the speaker as credible), then that statement is a logical argument.

Examples

There are many ways of making logical arguments. Here are a few common strategies:

Syllogism

A claim using deductive logic involving a major premise, a minor premise, and conclusion. This is a move from the general to the specific.

Examples:

Nuclear power plants generate dangerous nuclear waste, the new power plant they're planning to build in our community is a nuclear power plant. So the new power plant will be dangerous.

Republicans favor deregulation. John McCain is a Republican, so he will pursue a policy of deregulation if elected.

Democrats like to "tax and spend." Barack Obama is a Democrat, so he's going to raise our taxes if elected.

Support a generalization with examples

A claim using inductive logic, where a general statement about something is backed up by specific examples.

Examples:

In the second presidential debate of 2008, Senator John McCain emphasized his own good judgment in this way: "And I am convinced that my record, going back to my opposition from sending the Marines to Lebanon, to supporting our efforts in Kosovo and Bosnia and the first Gulf War, and my judgment, I think, is something that ... I'm willing to stand on."

In the second presidentail debate of 2008, Senator Barack Obama argued that the United States should maintain good relations with other nations in order to make the best use of our own military resources in a time of economic constraint. He then illustrated his general statement with this specific example: "Let's take the example of Darfur just for a moment. Right now there's a peacekeeping force that has been set up and we have African Union troops in Darfur to stop a genocide that has killed hundreds of thousands of people. We could be providing logistical support, setting up a no-fly zone at relatively little cost to us, but we can only do it if we can help mobilize the international community and lead."

Cause or consequence

A claim about one thing causing another, or one thing being caused by another.

Examples:

Global warming is caused by greenhouse gases being produced by humankind.

The current economic crisis was caused primarily by deregulation of the financial industry.

If the government gets involved in providing health insurance to the American people, we will see a sharp decline in the quality of our medical care.

Analogy

A claim about the qualities of one thing using a comparison about another thing.

Examples:

The ozone layer of the atmosphere is like the outer layer of skin on the human body, and if it goes away, planet Earth will be in a lot of pain.

Going to that class is about as exciting as watching paint dry.

"George Bush taking credit for the Berlin Wall coming down is like the rooster taking credit for the sunrise." (Al Gore, 1992 Vice Presidential Debate)

That candidate is what we call a post turtle. Imagine you're driving along a country road and you see a turtle up on top of a fence post. He doesn't know how he got there. He doesn't know what he's doing there. And he has no idea what to do next. (See this entry at Snopes.com)

Testimony and authority

A claim that involves citing the opinion of someone other than the rhetor, someone respected by the audience.

Examples:

4 out of 5 Dentists surveyed would recommend sugarless gum to their patients who chew gum (Trident Gum advertisement).

The leading U.S. military commanders in Iraq say the surge strategy is working.

How bad is the current financial mess? According to Alan Greenspan it's “the type of wrenching financial crisis that comes along only once in a century” ("Greenspan").

Definition

A claim about the meaning or nature of something.

Examples:

The Soviet Union is an evil empire.

Marriage is only a union between a man with a woman.